International Journal Of Environmental Research
Volume:7 Issue: 3, Summer 2013

Considering numerous problems related to the old textures, sustainable development canbe mentioned as the most efficient approach to avoid consequent shortcomings. The methodology adopted in the present paper is of analytical–descriptive type. Using the mentioned method, the data were collected through the field and documentary studies. The statistical society of present paper includes specialists in the field of urban planning who played an important role in the renovation of old textures in Amol, a city in the northern part of Iran. By observing the social, economic, and environmental characteristics in the studied region, and by interviewing the residents in Amol‘s old textures, the SWOT analysis, the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats using qualitative method, was adopted in order to detect the old textures. To analyze the data, SPSS and Excel software programs were used. In this paper, efforts have been made to analyze the renovation of old urban textures as having in mind the sustainable development. To organize the old textures in Amol, the ST type strategy was adopted from diverse strategies in this paper. The mentioned strategy mainly focuses on the internal strengths in order to eliminate the external threats.

The environmental and ecological issues in the flow-reduced river reach are very serious and arereceiving increasingly attention. In this study, we investigate the temporal and spatial changes in δ13C and δ15N of Periphyton and isotopic relationship between Periphyton and the endangered fish (Ayu, Plecoglossusaltivelis) in a flow-reduced river reach in Japan. Much of the spatial and temporal variation in δ13C ofendangered fish was explained by variation in Periphyton, indicating a strong link between primary production and higher order consumers. The Periphyton δ13C was correlated with current velocity while it was not correlated with the Periphyton biomass (Chl.a). Spatially, the relatively high δ13C and δ15N of Periphyton in the lower sites of the flow-reduced river reach might be due to high level of anthropogenically derived N and C introduced from the surrounding agricultural activities and human settings. The trophic position of the endangered fish in was estimated to be 1.5-2.2(1.8±0.3), which agrees with the previous stomach content analysis suggesting that the ayu mainly feed on Periphyton.

The chemical extraction of twenty-nine elements in a washing aggregate sludge, a clay-richsediment, a sewage sludge, the mixtures of these materials and the artificial lightweight aggregates (LWAs)manufactured with them was determined by applying the optimized European Community Bureau of Reference sequential extraction procedure in order to establish the effect of the thermal treatment on the extraction of the selected elements. In accordance with the UNE-EN-1744-3 standard (2003), which states a single extraction procedure, preparation of eluates by aggregate leaching was also carried out. All the elements are mainly associated with the residual fraction in the LWAs so their availability is relatively low. The element that presented the highest concentration in the eluates after completion of the single extraction procedure was Fe. All the studied elements are in concentrations below the limit values for inert wastes so, from the standpoint of chemical leaching, the studied LWAs may be used in lightweight concrete manufacturing.

The use of fertilizers NPK and amendments in sugar cane crops may change the heavy metalsconcentrations in soils, making them available for plants and, consequently, they can be transferred to thehuman food chain. This study describes the redistribution of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) in soils with sugar cane crops due to fertilizers NPK and amendments at Corumbataí River basin, São Paulo State. The heavy metals concentrations were determined in samples of fertilizers NPK (5:25:25) and amendments (limestones, KCl, and phosphogypsum) by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Heavy metals incorporated in fertilizers NPK and amendments are annually added in the sugar cane crops, but if utilized in accordance with the recommended rates, they do not raise the concentration levels in soils up to hazards values. Those applications promote the decrease of heavy metals concentration in soils profiles with sugar cane crops due to their fractionation to water soluble and/or exchangeable fractions, and the results still indicate that the profiles do not possess hazard levels in relation to heavy metals concentration. In relation to metals concentration in a sediment core, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn values increased progressively from 1974 to 2000 due to anthropogenic activities, mainly sugar cane crops, indicating adverse biological effects to the aquatic environment and to organisms living in or having direct contact with sediments.

The main objective of the current study is to investigate the impacts of environmental evolutionsat global scale on Iran’s environmental planning. Thereby, all political movements towards solving environmental issues in Iran were accurately reviewed to find out the impressibility of the events by the global environmental evolutions. The findings indicated that Iran has joined the conventions and protocols with a time lag. During the period 1948-1993, the mean time lag between holding an international convention until its approval in Iran was eleven years while from 1994 to 2007, the average lag time was shortened to four years. As the results show, attention to environmental issues was improved from one note on First Development Plan of the country (1989-1993), to three notes on the Second Development Plan (1995-1999), and one complete chapter on the Third Development Plan (2000-2005). Moreover, one of the six chapters of the Fourth Development Plan (2005-2009) (about 20 percent of the whole program) was dedicated to the environmental issues. In the Fifth Development Plan (2011-2015), sixteen topics have been raised at Environment Chapter and thirteen legal articles have been proposed in other chapters with a focus on environmental issues. It can be concluded that there has always been a direct link between international treaties and major political decisions in Iran.

Maharlou-Bakhtegan Catchment in the southern part of Iran is faced with water scarcity.This problem is exacerbated by environmental degradation, climate change effects, mismanagementof water resources, along with a major dependence of water demand supplies on the limitedgroundwater resources. In this study, a combined approach of DPSIR model along with the scenarioanalysis was employed to derive the optimal management strategies for the environmentally soundwater resources management of Maharlou-Bakhtegan Catchment considering the conjunctive useof surface and groundwater resources. Cause-effect relationships were identified by DPSIR frameworkand 15 scenarios were developed based on them. For evaluating each scenario, 9 integrated waterresources management indicators were introduced and evaluated by MODSIM.The resultsdemonstrated that in scenario Scen-14, restriction for the irrigation area development, as well asother management solutions, which led to 100% supply of domestic and industrial water demandsand 91% supply of agricultural water demands. Also in the last scenario the value 1.79 kg/ m3 wasreceived by the Agricultural water productivity indicators. Moreover, by satisfying all IWRMindicators as well as enhancing zero for negative water balance of the aquifers in Scen-14, it is clearlyindicated that this scenario revealed more efficient management solutions for the environmentallysound water resources management of the catchment.

The potential of heat inactivated Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the bioremoval and reduction ofCr (VI) ions from wastewaters was evaluated in terms of metal uptake in time and at equilibrium, andbiosorption efficiency, by varying pH, biosorbent doses, contact time and temperature, in batch mode. During the sorption process, the heat inactivated biomass of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is capable of reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(III). Different kinetic models based on adsorption and reduction are used to represent the kinetic data of Cr(VI) bioremoval by S. cerevisiae, in explaining the biosorption mechanism of heavy metals and potential rate-controlling steps, in the perspective of full-scale process design. The results indicated some potential differences in the Cr(VI) removal mechanism at different experimental conditions. FTIR and SEM analysis were performed as well as to elucidate the mechanism of metal bioremoval by S. cerevisiae. FTIR spectra indicate that heavy metal bioremoval process doesn’t imply in this case the formation of stable covalent bonds, but it is predominantly based on chemical interactions, ion-exchange type. The SEM micrographs of Cr-loaded yeast, indicates that the surface morphology doesn’t change much after chromium ions were uptaken. This leads to the conclusion that Cr(VI) reduction occurs at the interface of the adsorbent.

In this study, the effect of some toxic organic chemicals on Mogan Lake has been investigatedusing the AQUATOX Model. The unique property of the Model includes the sub ecotoxicological modelwhen compared to the other water quality models. The ecosystem model AQUATOX, which is one of the fewgeneral ecological risk models that represents the combined environmental repercussions and effects of toxicborganic chemicals, was selected for this study. The Model also supplies conventional pollutants, such as nutrients and sediments, and considers several trophic levels, including attached and planktonic algae, submerged aquatic vegetation, several types of invertebrates, and several types of fish. All data measured at both lake and creeks have been loaded into the AQUATOX Model as both initial concentration and dynamic loading for the year of 2002. Then, the AQUATOX Model was calibrated and verified for the years of 2004 and 2005. After verification and calibration, the effects of toxic organic substances such as Dieldrin, Simazin, Carbofuran, PCB 180, Malathion, Tefluthrin, PCB 101, Fluridone, Pentachloropenol, DDT, Parathion, EPTC, PCB 110, Chlordane and Alochlor, all of which are found in the AQUATOX Library, on phytoplanktons and zooplanktons in the Mogan Lake, have been observed for one year. The results have indicated that zooplanktons are more sensitive to specific toxic substances than phytoplanktons. It has been seen that phytoplanktons have grown through getting toxic substances at first, and then tended to decrease after a definite time. However, some zooplankton species maintained their growth by taking toxic organic substances.

A model describing the main processes occurring in the UASB reactor was developed; in orderto maintain simplicity and applicability of the model, only the fundamental aspects were considered. In themodel, the reactor is divided in several well-stirred reactors coupled in series and it comprises substratedegradation, biomass growth and the reactions that take place within the granules. The important contribution of the paper is the development of a model taking into account the mass transfer through the film around the granules, the intra-particle diffusion, and the degradation reaction. The model enables the determination of the removal efficiency of the substrate and the increase of both the height of the sludge bed and the granule size with time. The simulated results of an experimental UASB reactor treating sugar-cane mill wastewater were found to be in good agreement with the performance of the reactor. The sensitivity analysis shows that the performance of the reactor is determined by several parameters. The most important parameters are: the bioconversion rate, the mass transfer coefficient in the film, the intra-particle diffusivity, the volumetric fraction of biomass in the reactor, and the number of CSTR considered. These parameters should therefore be carefully determined. The model could be a useful tool in the optimization and development of UASB reactors.

Furan is a possible human carcinogen in many types of foods. A new and sensitive electroanalytical method for determination of furan has been developed and validated. The best condition forelectrochemical response was obtained with 0.1 M britton-rabinson buffer solution (pH=5) a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was used as the working electrode, a Ag/AgCl/ KCl(sat.) electrode served as the reference electrode, and a platinum wire as the auxiliary electrode under the Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV)mode. The peak current obtained from DPV was linearly dependent on the Furan concentration in the range 12–360 μM (0.81–24.5 ppm) with correlation coefficients of 0.999 and a limit of detection (LOD) of 3 μM (0.2 ppm) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of 10 μM (0.68 ppm) were calculated, respectively. The values of the electron-transfer coefficient (α) involved in the rate determining step calculated from the linear plots of Ep against ln (ν) in the pH range investigated were 0.8 confirming the irreversible nature of the oxidation peak. The reproducibility of the method was tested by analyzing 10 samples containing 30 μM of Furan. The RSD % of the method thus obtained was 3.0 % which showed excellent reproducibility for this developed methods.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is a far-reaching piece of European Communitylegislation. Estimates of the benefits of WFD Programs are needed at the present time for two reasons. First,the WFD itself allows for derogations from the general requirement of member states to reach good ecological status in all water bodies by 2015 in cases where the costs of doing so can be shown to be disproportionate. This paper presents a contingent valuation survey for the valuation and desirability of improvements regarding the WFD in England and Wales. According to our behavioral models, positive welfare changes constitute a sound argument in favor of the development of programs developed to increase the water quality. Moreover, the paper tests how the ‘departure’ endowments influence the willingness to pay for water quality improvements. In this sense, scope test and diminishing marginal value hypothesis are examined. The average willingness to pay appears to be insensitive to the water improvement intensity and a scope bias could be affecting our results. Nevertheless, it is shown a marginal decreasing value for water quality improvements and that the environmental program leads to different wellbeing intensity attending to local endowments.

A long-term study was conducted between 1985 and 2003 on rehabilitation trials at Sishen IronOre Mine, South Africa, to identify grass species that would survive in the artificial growth medium appliedto the sites, and to determine the most suitable medium for sustainable vegetation growth. Vegetationestablishment was tested at slopes of 18° and 34° and with five different cover materials. After 17 years ofrehabilitation, investigations showed that weathered limestone sloped at 18° produced the highest percentage of plant cover and least erosion. Sixteen grass species were introduced and identified in the survey, with Eragrostis sp. and Cenchrus ciliaris as the dominant species. In 2004, new trials were initiated at the same mine to evaluate the effectiveness of different seeding methods and supplementation of the growth medium with organic material. After 4 years, hydro seeding was found to be the best method to distribute seeds evenly and to ensure uniform vegetation growth. Different engineering designs, such as changing the contour length and slope, had little influence on the measured parameters. A total of 28 grass species were identified in the sampling plots, with Enneapogon cenchroides and Cenchrus ciliaris as the dominant ones. Dehydrogenase activity was used as a proxy for microbial activity, and a positive association was observed between microbial activity and percentage organic carbon, emphasising the importance of soil organic matter in the soil development process.

Gamma-rays emitted from the ground surface relate to the primary mineralogy and geochemistryof the bedrock, and the secondary weathered materials. This information can contribute significantly to anunderstanding of the geochemical and pedogenetic history of a region. The main aim of this paper was to study the relationship between ground gamma-ray data and basement geochemistry in the Lese catchment (Calabria, southern Italy) and to map them, using geostatistics, from in-situ γ-ray spectrometry. The activities of naturally occurring radionuclides were measured at 179 locations by in situ measurements of 40K, 238U, 232Th and total radioactivity and by using gamma-ray spectrometry. Then a multi-Gaussian approach was used to explore and map the activity of naturally occurring radionuclides (40K, 238U, 232Th) and total radioactivity. Locations and lithological compositions of bedrock appear to be responsible for variations in radioelement activity. From radiometric investigations it has emerged that the natural activity of radionuclides in rocks and soils is not equally distributed, but rather influenced by the different geologic conformations of the various examined areas. As expected, high values of 40K, 232Th and total radioactivity were found in rocks of plutonic origin and low values in sedimentary rocks. Uranium radioactivity behaved in a constant manner in these lithologies, albeit with some differences in clayey sites particularly rich in Uranium.

The objective of this study was to diagnose integrative ecological health of an urban stream,which is located in the Asian temperate region. The research approach was primarily based on the Index ofBiological Integrity (IBI) using fish assemblage and a Qualitative Habitat Evaluation Index (QHEI). And these indexes were compared with long-term conventional chemical dataset during 1996-2005. For the experiment, four sampling sites were chosen from the stream and wading method was used for fish collection during 2004-2005. We developed a stream health assessment model (SHA model) for the regional application. Stream health conditions, based on the SHA model, averaged 23 indicating a fair-poor condition, and varied from 18 to 40 depending on the sampling stations. Values of QHEI varied from 55 (fair-poor condition) to 112 (good-fair condition) and the values were significantly lower in the down stream than the headwater. Water quality, based on COD, BOD, TN and TP declined from the upstream to downstream reach. The proportion of sensitive species showed a negative linear function with BOD and the tolerant was vise versa. Values of SHA model reflected the chemical and physical habitat conditions and this result was clearly evident in the downstream reach. These outcomes were supported by principal component analysis (PCA) of IBI vs. other factors. Overall these results suggest that the impacts to the health of this stream are due to the combined effects of both chemical and habitat degradation.

The present study was conducted to investigate the impacts of retrofitted CNG vehicles on airpollutant emissions in Tehran over a 20 years period using available statistical data, precise automobile tests, data analysis, and LEAP Software. The obtained results revealed an increase in air pollutant emissions including CO (equal to 1030.77 thousand tons), NOx (equal to 1030.77 thousand tons), THC (269.02 thousand tons) and CO2 (equal to 38.43 thousand tons) resulting from utilizing retrofitted CNG vehicles within the studied period. Considering the obtained results, if the current trend of producing retrofitted CNG vehicles continues, a total cost of 435 million USD will impose on the environment, annually. According to the emission test results, by implementing retrofitted CNG vehicles policy, a higher emission rate of dual-fuel vehicles will be expected compared to their petrol-fueled counterparts. This is due to poor quality of the policy implementation such the use of substandard conversion kits and old technology of retrofit technologies.

Assessment of long term erosion and accretion rate of the coastal area is essential for selectionof different types of coastal structures. For example, it is not advisable to develop housing infrastructure onthe coast, which is historically eroding. Similarly it is not preferable to select an accreting site for theconstruction of a port in order to avoid annual maintenance dredging after construction of the port. Kuwait isa coastal country and hence it is essential to understand the long term coastal morphological changes of thecoast and identify the historically accreting or eroding or stable coast over a period of many years, say 10 to15 years. The coastline evolution of Kuwait is investigated using Landsat remote sensing images (30 mresolution) from 1989 to 2003, IRS-P5 images (2.5 m resolution) obtained for the year 2006-07 and 2003 aerial photos (0.38 m resolution). A total of 130 grids, each at a spacing of 1 nautical mile is used. The extent of accretion/erosion for 17 years (from 1989 to 2006) for the mainland coastline of Kuwait is assessed. The average shoreline change/year is calculated. Erosion and accretion index for each location is assigned based on the average annual erosion and accretion. From this study, it is found that annual erosion of more than 25 m does not exist in Kuwait. 1.54% of the coast has experienced annual erosion of 10 to 25 m and 0.77% of the coast has experienced 0 to 10 m annual erosion. 3.85% of the coast is stable. 43.85% of the coast has annual accretion of 0 to 10 m, 11.54% has annual accretion of 10 to 25 m and 38.46% has annual accretion of greater than 25 m. The complete details of this study are presented in this paper. The results will be useful for integrated management of Kuwaiti coast.

La Caldera” is a high mountain lake located in Sierra Nevada, Spain. For its position andcharacteristics it is considered as an important “sensor” for global changes. Water samples were collectedduring the ice-free season in order to observe changes in the bacterial community structure. Experiments were carried out complementing culture and culture-independent methods. Strong variations of the bacterialcommunities were recorded along the sampling period in particular regarding number and phylogeneticrelationships of the microorganisms detected. At the season beginning, bacterial counts were rather high butstrains belonged only to β- and γ-Proteobacteria. By contrast, in the middle of the season, possibly due toexternal inputs, total number of bacteria decreased but other phylogenetic groups, such as α–proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Firmicute appeared. On the whole, Proteobacteria were the dominant microbiota. Bacterial diversity and presence of most abundant species were analysed by PCR-TGGE. Sequencing of TGGE bandsconfirmed that prevalent Bacteria populations were evolutively close to Proteobacteria with predominance of α- and β-Proteobacteria. Analysis of diversity and functional organization suggested that “La Caldera” bacterial microbiota, typical of oligotrophic and/or extreme environments with low habitability, was characterized by a community organized in an adequate distribution of dominant and resilient species. Although rather specialized, the community presented a sufficient functionality and flexibility to react to changing and stressing conditions. However, along the ice-free season, the community evolved showing more specialized populations with less adaptation abilities. This is the first work complementing cultural and cultural-independent methods for the “La Caldera” lake.

Textile Industries use different chemicals in indigo dyeing processes. Interest in eco-friendlyprocessing in the textile industry has recently increased because of a larger awareness of environmental issues. For the case of indigo dyeing process, the reducing agent conventionally used is the - environmentally unfavourable – sodium dithionite, which will be replaced in this study with an ecological reducing agent called acetol that is also known as hydroxyacetone. In this paper, measurements of the redox potential at various experimental conditions were carried out in a dyeing bath, where acetol is the reducing agent of indigo. Moreover, an unconventional but eco-friendly indigo dyeing process of cotton was investigated. The effects of: reduction duration, dyeing duration, reduction temperature, alkalinity and the amount of indigo on the performances of this dyeing process were studied, and the dyeing results were evaluated by measuring the colour yield parameter (K/S) of the dyed samples at 660 nm. Finally, a factorial design was employed for the experimental plan; mathematical model equation and statistical analysis were derived by computer simulation applying the least squares method using Minitab 15.

Dependence on chemical fertilizer continually is increasing. Continual increasing of using chemicalfertilizer causes nature pollution (e.g. water contamination). This has led researchers to aggressively investigate renewable fertilizer resources, biomass, to produce organic crops and reduced wastage. Wormy compost is a bulk solid and biomass feed stocks. Wormy compost flow is obstacle as it often becomes confined by Clogging and bridging which occurs during storage and processing. The objective of this study was to review the primary factors affecting flow-ability and wall friction characteristics of granular solids and powders, as well as devote testing methodologies for this biomass material. It can be said that high moisture content and small particle size has an adverse effect on the flow property of wormy compost. Increasing the moisture content and decrees particle size of the wormy compost reduced its flow-ability from free flowing at moisture content of 25% (w.b.) and 1.18mm in particle size to cohesive at moisture content of 35% (w.b.) and 0.3mm in particle size. The maximum values of friction angle were occurred for Steel, Galvanized and Aluminum surface, respectively.

The aim of this work was to optimize the coagulation-flocculation (CF) process applied tomunicipal wastewaters (WW). Optimization of CF was performed to minimize chemical oxygen demand(COD), turbidity, sludge produced, and some metals in sludge. A Box-Behnken design was used to evaluate the effects and interactions of three factors such as type of biopolymer (guar, mesquite seed gum and Opuntia mucilage), dose of biopolymer (25, 50 and 75 mg/L) and initial organic load of wastewaters WW (725, 1,425 and 1,325 mg COD/L). Regarding the statistical analysis, Results were assessed with various descriptive statistics such as p value, lack of fit (F-test), coefficient of R2 determination and adequate precision (AP) values. p values 0.05 show that the F-statistics was insignificant implying significant model correlation between the variables and process responses. Regarding the fit of the model, the obtained R2 values were up to 0.98 for sludge produced, 0.94 for COD removal, 0.91 for Cd, 0.90 for turbidity removal, and 0.75 for sludge density. It is noteworthy that response surface methodology (RSM) also allowed optimizing de CF process. Employing this methodology it is feasible to determine COD, turbidity, and salts removals, as well as the amount and quality of the produced sludges under hypothetical conditions within predetermined parameter ranges, without the need of carrying out experimental runs.

Since treatment of landfill leachate is quite complicated, there is a need to develop a system thatis capable of providing high treatment efficiencies. In this study, the treatment performance of a jet - loop membrane bioreactor (JLMB) operated at different organic loading rates was investigated by observing the changes in Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Kjehldahl Nitrogen (TKN) and Total Ammonia (NH3) concentrations. The same COD removal rates (83%) were observed at all the studied loading rates, and it should be noted that the biodegradable part of the leachate was removed completely. It was also observed that the NH4 – N / TKN ratios, which were found to be approximately 0.9, did not change throughout the study. However, further treatment technologies, such as reverse osmosis, nanofiltration or ion - exchange, should be employed for the complete removal of inert COD and NH3 in order to meet related discharge limits.

Diazinon is a moderately persistent organ phosphorus pesticide largely used in agriculture. Thepurpose of this study was to evaluate the histopathological damages induced by diazinon in gills, kidney,spleen, and intestine tissues of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. The fishes were exposed to sub-lethalconcentrations of diazinon (0.1 and 0.2 mg/L) for a period of 28 days. Tissues analyzed by a microscope were normal in the control group. The histological alterations in gills were characterized by epithelial hyperplasia, necrosis of epithelial filament and lamellar fusion, edema and curling of secondary lamellae. Glomerular lesions, shrinking of the glomerulus and enlargement of space inside Bowman’s capsule, dwindling of the tubular lumen, degeneration and necrosis of renal tubules were observed in the kidney tissue of the exposed fish. The spleen tissue showed disorder in ellipsoids cellular and deposition hemosiderin in melanomacrophage centers. Exfoliate of mucosal epithelium, lymphocyte infiltration to lamina propria, reduction of the elastic properties and capillary bleeding were seen in intestine tissue of fish exposed to diazinon. In conclusion, these results indicate the existence of a direct relationship between the pollution of ecosystems by organ phosphorus pesticides such as diazinon and histopathological disorders in different tissues of exposed fishes.

The presence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is a significant indicator of water quality,having in mind that several genera have the quality of producing cyanotoxins, which are harmful to animals,plants and humans. Seven lakes in Vojvodina (Republic of Serbia) were examined in May and September 2007 for cyanobacterial presence and cyanotoxins content, Chl a concentration and index of phosphatase activity as the indicators of water quality. In the spring period, cyanobacteria species were not dominant in only 2 of 14 water samples. Microcystins were detected in all of the lakes examined. The concentrations of microcystins ranged from 6.66 μg/L (Provala Lake) to 199.9 and 238 μg/L (Palić and Ludaš Lake respectively).The investigations conducted on 7 water ecosystems in Vojvodina, regarding the basic parameters of eutrophication, Chl a concentration and phosphatase activity index, have rendered the examined ecosystems immensely endangered due to significant water quality deterioration. It was determined that the intensification of eutrophication processes has been linked to the increased presence and abundance of cyanobacteria as well as significant toxin production.

The effect of hydraulic retention time in a range from 1.0-5.5 days was evaluated in a laboratoryscaleanaerobic fixed bed reactor packed with a hybrid material composed of tire rubber and zeolite. Underthese conditions, COD removal efficiencies varied from 28.3% to 82.1%, respectively. Over the more than 6 months of operation, no clogging was observed. The results obtained demonstrated that this type of reactor was capable of operating with dairy waste at a hydraulic retention time 5 times lower than that used in a conventional digester. Based on the laboratory-scale experimental results obtained, a pilot-scale plant was designed. The pilot plant was installed in “Cot de Oreamuno” near the city of Cartago, Costa Rica.Biogas produced in the pilot-scale anaerobic plant was used for the generation of electricity on the farm. In this case, a COD removal efficiency of 63.6 % was achieved in the full-scale anaerobic plant at a hydraulic retention time of 3 days, this value being comparable with that obtained at laboratory-scale.

Plankton studies are one of the major items of the marine scientific activities in the ROPME SeaArea، whereas numerous investigations have been conducted on the plankton during the past century. Forphytoplankton، species composition، abundance and biomass، primary production، harmful algal blooms، redtide، toxic species، and eutrophication were considered. Zooplankton studies included species compositionand abundance، certain zooplankton groups and few studies on certain species. The main achievement of these studies was the identification of large number of phytoplankton and zooplankton species in different parts of the RSA and estimation of their abundance. The survey of these studies revealed the occurrence of several gaps in the plankton research in ROPME Sea Area. For example، the majority of these studies were carried out in the inner part، while some of them were done in the middle part. Several studies were based on samples collected once only during certain time of the year or on samples collected from localized areas. The role of the function groups of the both phytoplankton and zooplankton، the harmful algal blooms، toxic phytoplankton species، the role of small phytoplankton groups rather diatoms and dinoflagellates and vertical migration of zooplankton were little concerned. In addition، the continuous record of the Indo-Pacific species entering the inner RSA from the Sea of Oman appeared to be completely missed. The present study attempts to stress the achievements as well as the gaps in the earlier plankton studies in the ROPME Sea Area in order to propose a scientific plan for comprehensive study of plankton community relative to the prevailing environmental conditions in the concerned area.

This study assesses the effect of major trace metals levels in wastewater discharges and sedimentfrom twenty four permanent and five semi-permanent wastewater drain outlets into the Kuwait coast. The effect of trace metals levels released from untreated wastewater discharges to Euchelus asper, gastropod was also determined. Results showed high trace metal levels in E. asper tissues, followed by sediment and in wastewater during winter than in summer irrespectively of the sampled areas. Regionally, distributed wastewater drain outlets in six Kuwait Governorates (GI-GVI) revealed high trace metal levels in GI due to industrialization and occasional untreated wastewater discharges into the marine environment. High Zn and Cr in the gastropod, sediment and wastewater samples indicated the effect of oil spills and untreated wastewater discharged into the sea. Results of our study exceeding the standards pollution limits could be validated as a tool to undertake precautionary measures to similar polluted areas elsewhere in the globe.

To study the population structure of Decapods in the Intertidal Zone of Bushehr Rocky shores, some random sample collection from four Rocky and rubble shores of Bushehr were done using a 50×50 quadrates sampling unit, in four successive seasons from autumn 2009 to summer 2010. Totally 8 species belonging to 5 family of Decapods were identified and counted. In the whole course of sample collection, the highest frequency rate belongs to Petrolisthes Rufescence species with 51%, pagurus sp. species with 22%,Metapograpsus maculates with 7%, pilimnus sp. with 6.5%, Alpheus lobidens shrimp with 3% and other species with 10.5% ranked next. The results show a drop in frequency and diversity in cold seasons and the most important factor of those changes is temperature changes. Place frequency of Decapods showed that in sites of Lian and Holeileh (C & D Stations) diversity of Decapods is more due to less pollution, less accessibility, and vast and complex bed.

Anastrepha bezzii (Diptera: Tephritidae) larvae are common inside fruits of Sterculia chicha (Malvaceae) in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The seed dormancy and attack by A. bezzii of the native species S.chicha can be detrimental to seed germination and thus the natural spread of this plant. The objectives of the current study were to compare ecological observations of A. bezzii and S. chicha in the field and laboratory, and to assess the germination of S. chicha colonized by A. bezzii. A total of five seeds that were either intact or punctured by A. bezzii larvae were removed per S. chicha fruit. The seeds were subjected to a germination test performed using one of four treatments: intact seeds without scarification (T1); intact seeds scarified for 3 min with sandpaper number 40 on one side of each seed (T2); drilled seeds without scarification (T3); and drilled seeds scarified for 3 min with sandpaper number 40 on one side of each seed (T4). The germination of S. chicha seeds was highest in the T2 group (72.6%), intermediate in the T1 (51.7%) and T4 groups (33.1%), and lowest in the T3 group (11.2%). The attack by A. bezzii of the fruits and seeds of S. chicha can be detrimental to seed germination and thus the further establishment of this native species in the field. The scarification of intact seeds of S. chicha for 3 min with sandpaper number 40 on one side of each seed can overcome the dormancy for its production in nurseries.

The goal of this study was to survey the natural vegetation on waste landfills and suggest arestoration plan. In the study, I identified 63 families, 275 species, and 34 varieties of aboveground vascular flora. Robinia pseudo-acacia was the dominant tree, with a basal area density of 1.51¡3/ha, followed in decreasing order by Salix koreensis and Populus sieboldii. TWINSPAN resulted in the classification of 6 communities. The result of Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis(DCCA) of 24 environmentalvariables and vegetation data was that the presence of artificial turf, human disturbance, landfill age, presence of periodic management and soil Na levels were correlated with the first axis. Soil chemical analyses showed that total nitrogen was greater at control sites than in landfills, but levels of K, Na, Ca, Mg, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn were greater in landfills than at control sites. Current planning by central and local governments calls for converting waste landfills into ecological parks or golf courses. In the initial stages of a landfill closure, a landfill restoration plan must be made to select soil for capping the landfill and to plan for future facilities. If vegetation is present near the landfill to provide a propagule source, the recommended course of action is to allow for natural restoration to occur through propagule dispersal and successional processes. However, if the landfill stands as a secluded island without a nearby propagule source, artificial restoration methods are suggested.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used in many products as flameretardants, which resulted in their release into the environment. Little is known about the impact of coexisting PBDEs on organisms. In this study, the in vivo effects of BDE-47 and BDE-99 on a suite of biomarkers, acetyl cholinesterase (AChE), ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), in goldfish (Carassius auratus) were investigated. The enzyme activities were significantly altered by the two PBDEs (alone and in combination) after 2, 4, and 7 days of exposure, and obvious dose-response and time-response relationships were observed at most cases. The results suggest that these biomarkers could be used to assess ecological risks of PBDEs on fish. An integrated biomarker response (IBR) was calculated by combining multiple biomarkers to single value and used to quantitatively evaluate the toxicological effects of different chemicals. In general, BDE-99 showed more adverse biological effects than BDE-47. The joint action of mixtures seemed to be synergism at low dosage and antagonism at high dosage with regard to IBR variation.

Mangrove sediments were collected during wet and dry seasons from nine stations in Khamir,Laft and natural reservoir mangrove-dense areas of Hormozgan province in the south of Iran. Σ PCBs ranged from 5.33 to 15.5 ng/g dry weight and the dominant congener was no.153. Average Σ DDTs for Khamir and Laft mangroves were 16.58 ± 1.51 and 18.8 ± 9.98 ng/g dry weight. DDT was more abundant than DDE and DDD isomers, which indicated the input of DDT. The sediment quality guideline shows that the concentration of Σ PCBs were below the ER-M guideline, whereas levels of Σ DDTs were between ER-L and ER-M. The mangrove ecosystem in Hormozgan province is suffering from urban and industrial development.